Turkeys
Introduction -- Production & Welfare -- Disease -- Transport -- Slaughter
The vast majority of turkeys (90%) are intensively reared
for their meat. Traditionally, turkeys were mainly reared for the Christmas
market but today they are produced throughout the year. There are approximately
around 6 million turkeys in the UK and over 17 million were slaughtered in
2006 (1). Given the opportunity turkeys will cover a wide area eating vegetation,
seeds and grains. Wild turkeys are strong fliers and roost high up in trees.
They are more closely related to game birds such as pheasants and partridges
than to chickens.
Production & Welfare
The modern domesticated turkey emerged from the wild species native to
North America, where they live in open forests. Turkeys have a distinctive
fleshy caruncle that hangs from the beak, called a snood, and have wingspans
of almost 6 feet. The three main types of turkey production consist of
conventional enclosed housing (Broiler sheds), pole barns and free range
systems.
Flocks of turkeys are kept for
breeding to produce chicks to rear for their meat. The parent birds undergo
a number of welfare problems having
been selectively bred so they produce huge amounts of breast meat. Their
large size and broad breasts have caused male breeding turkeys (stags)
to suffer from degenerative hip disorders resulting in chronic pain. They
are unable to mate naturally so artificial insemination (AI) is routine.
This procedure involves the male breeding turkeys being repeatedly ‘milked’ for
semen collection, whilst females (hens) have to endure the process of being
caught and inseminated by tube/syringe (2). AI completely frustrates the
natural mating instincts of turkeys and is distressing for both stags and
hens. The surplus chicks which are produced in breeding (referred to as ‘hatchery
waste’) are killed by a number of permitted methods, these include
exposure to gas mixtures or dislocation of the neck (1).
The majority of turkeys reared
for their meat are kept in windowless houses, with some containing up
to as many as 25,000 birds. Heating, ventilation
and lighting, etc are all automatically controlled with a minimum of 8
hours artificial light allowed each day. The stocking density for broiler-type
housing of turkeys is 260cm2/kg, and as the birds grow and approach slaughter
age they become more tightly packed together. Broiler sheds contain flocks
of around 10,000 birds housed on litter (usually wood shavings). The litter
is not changed during the turkey’s time in the shed and so becomes
increasingly covered in the bird’s faeces. Turkeys do not scratch
around in the litter in the way that chickens will and this means the condition
of the litter deteriorates more quickly. Many turkeys die in these sheds
every year, this includes young birds that never learn to reach food and
water points (these birds are known as starve-outs) (2). Turkeys reared
in pole barns are slightly less densely stocked compared with conventional
sheds, (around 410cm²/kg). Pole Barns are large sheds with natural
lighting and ventilation. As these are not often purpose built for rearing
birds bad ventilation, draughts, exposure and heat stress can all cause
problems. Due to a lack of environmental stimulation and overcrowding,
aggression and cannibalism are often controlled in these barns by de-beaking
(2). In free-range systems birds are stocked at 10m2 per bird (1).
The mutilations turkeys have to endure includes toe cutting, beak trimming
(de-beaking) and de-snooding.
•
Toe cutting is carried out in avoid injury to hens during mating
(even when saddled – saddles are designed to
prevent injury to the backs and sides by the stags), it involves
the last joint of the inside toes
of the male breeding birds to be removed. This must be carried out
within the first 3 days of life, if not then a Veterinary Surgeon
must perform
this.
• Beak trimming is mostly carried on out breeding turkeys and those
kept for meat in pole barns and free-range systems to prevent or control
injurious
behaviour. It involves slicing off about one-third of the beak usually
with a red hot blade when the turkey is around 5 days old (breeders
may be de-beaked again at 14 to 18 weeks). This can be extremely painful
for the bird and studies on de-beaked chickens have shown pain to
be
prolonged
and perhaps indefinite (3). The Farm Animal Welfare Council believe
that it is best to trim accurately (using a cold cut) and substantially
when
the bird is young in order to retard re-growth of the upper beak
so further cutting is not required. Studies have shown that cold cutting
was the
most accurate method, but that substantial re-growth of the beak
occurred. The
use of a hot cut was the most distressing procedure for the turkeys.
Beak trimming should be carried out by a skilled operator or under
supervision.
• Stags may sometimes also be de-snooded soon after hatching. The snood
is the part of the turkey's wattle arising from the forehead and
lying over the upper beak. De-snooding may occur to reduce the risk
of cannibalism
in intensively stocked turkeys and if not carried out within 3 weeks
of life this must be performed by a Veterinary Surgeon (1).
Disease
There are a number of common diseases which affect turkeys, in particularly
those which are intensively reared, these include the following;
Lameness
The selective breeding for rapid weight gain, along with the use of high
nutrient feed, has meant that many turkeys are unable to support their
own weight. Due to the large size of male breeding turkeys, lameness
and infections of leg and hip joints are a problem, with leg pain in
particular being considerable (4). Lameness may also be the result of
foot ulceration caused by turkeys having to stand on wet, dirty litter.
Turkey Rhinotracheitis (TRT)
This is an acute respiratory disease of turkeys caused by a pneumovirus,
characterised by coughing, sneezing and sinusitis which can make the
face look very swollen. Secondary bacterial infection, with organisms
such as E.coli or Pasteurella, usually follows and this can lead to high
mortality. Any disease which causes diarrhoea and wet litter can have
a drastic effect on the ability of the birds to make a full recovery.
If a flock becomes infected, antibiotics are used to minimise the effects
of secondary infection. A live vaccine is available commercially and
is usually applied by spray application in the first 10 days of life.
However, this is not always totally effective and some outbreaks still
occur (3).
Bacterial infections
The bacterium E.coli is always present in the digestive tract of poultry
with most strains being non-pathogenic. Coli septicaemia is one of a
small number of pathogenic strains and it has been suggested that male
turkeys may be more susceptible to this than females, especially when
under severe stress (6). The unhealthy intensive nature of farms means
bacteria can spread easily through flocks. Salmonella and Campylobacter
are widespread in broiler farms and frequent causes of food poisoning
in humans.
Bird Flu
Avian influenza is a highly contagious viral disease affecting the respiratory,
digestive and/or nervous system of many species of birds. It is caused
by a Type A influenza virus, a disease which must be notified to the local
State Veterinary Service Divisional Veterinary Manager. There are two types
of avian influenza virus, low pathogenic (LPAI) and highly pathogenic (HPAI).
Within the LPAI types there is evidence that certain H5 and H7 viruses
may mutate and become highly pathogenic. On April 5th 2006 a dead swan
which was found in Scotland tested positive for the highly pathogenic virus
H5N1. On February 3rd 2007, H5N1 was confirmed on a poultry farm in Holton,
Suffolk. A 3 km Protection Zone (PZ) and 10 km Surveillance Zone (SZ) were
imposed along with a wider Restricted Zone. On March 12th 2007 the restrictions
around the farm in Holton were lifted. Only the movement of meat produced
from birds originating within the PZ that were killed prior to the PZ merging
with the SZ will need to continue to be licensed and reported. A Food Standards
Agency (FSA) investigation has thoroughly examined the possibility that
food waste at the Bernard Matthews cutting plant at Holton may have been
stored inappropriately. The investigation concluded that there was no evidence
of any offences under the Animal By-Products Regulations 2005.
All of the evidence collected indicates that the infection has not spread
beyond one site. Defra have not yet located the exact source of the infection
but the lack of evidence of another outbreak indicates that the risk of
spread of infection has now reduced. European Union (EU) trade will recommence
from the restriction zones and Defra are working with exporters, British
Embassies overseas and non-EU countries’ veterinary authorities to
try to keep export markets open and to facilitate exports (1).
Transport
The catching and transport of birds prior to slaughter can cause considerable
pain and distress. Turkeys are considerably larger and stronger than
chickens and can be nervous and easily frightened. Catchers are often
less familiar with handling turkeys and many birds may be injured whilst
being removed from sheds/barns and thrust into crates. Poor handling
frequently results in bruising, skin grazing and broken blood vessels.
Transport to slaughter can be a considerable distance and the birds may
be exposed to extremes of weather. Cold, heat, stress, suffocation and
shock all take their toll.
Slaughter
Turkeys are normally slaughtered at between 9 and 21 weeks old, depending
on the size of bird being produced (the natural lifespan of a turkey
is around 10 years). Over 17 million turkeys were slaughtered in 2006 (1). The majority of birds are killed in large, semi-automated slaughterhouses.
Turkeys are removed from their crates and hung upside down by their legs
from shackles on a moving line. Turkeys may legally hang shackled for
up to 3 minutes before being stunned and this time is probably frequently
exceeded (2). At slaughter, turkeys can weigh anything from 5 - 28kg,
light turkeys are those classed under 8kg and heavy turkeys over 8kgs.
The pain caused to heavy birds whilst they hang in shackles must be considerable.
This pain will be worsened by the fact that many of the birds and especially
the larger ones will suffer from diseased hip joints.
The shackles carries them to
an electrically charged stunning water bath through which the bird’s
head is dragged in order to render the bird unconscious, and thus insensible
to pain before their necks are cut. For
a bird to be stunned, rather than receiving an electric shock, the electric
current must pass through its brain before contacting any other part of
the body. As turkeys have a large wingspan, their wings hang lower than
their heads and so are in danger of entering the stunning bath before their
heads (2,5).
Scientific Research has identified
two vital factors to reduce the danger of birds regaining consciousness
as they bleed to death. Sufficient current
should be used to induce a cardiac arrest and both carotid arteries in
the neck (the main blood supply to the brain) must be severed to ensure
that the turkeys die as quickly as possible from loss of blood, reducing
the likelihood of birds regaining consciousness. A number of slaughterhouses
fail to regularly ensure both these factors are carried out (5). After
the bird’s necks have been cut they are placed into a scalding tank,
which is designed to loosen their feathers before plucking.
Due to an additional demand
for turkeys at Christmas, ‘Seasonal
Slaughterhouses’ are used to cope with the extra demand, 10 millions
turkeys are killed in this period (7). Many turkeys will be killed by having
their necks dislocated, research has shown that this does not usually have
an immediate effect and therefore unconsciousness may not be instantaneous
(2). There is no law that a licensed slaughter man must carry the procedure
of neck dislocation.
References and Useful Links
1. Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) www.defra.gov.uk/
2. Compassion in World Farming (CIWF). Updated March 2006. Turkey farming
in Britain, Briefing. http://www.ciwf.org/publications/Briefings/BR4098.pdf
3. Farm Animal Welfare Council. Report on the welfare of turkeys. http://www.fawc.org.uk/reports/turkeys/turkrtoc.htm
4. Duncan, I.J.H., Beatty, E.R., Hocking, P.M. and Duff, S.R.I. 1991.
Assessment of pain associated with degenerative hip disorders in adult
male turkeys. Research in Veterinary Science 50:200-203. http://www.organic-vet.reading.ac.uk/Poultryweb/disease/ecoli/ecoli.htm
5. Stevenson. P. 1997. The Welfare of Turkeys at Slaughter. Compassion
in World Farming Trust (CIWF). http://www.ciwf.org/publications/reports/the_welfare_of_turkeys_at_slaughter_1997.pdf
6. Huff, G. R. Huff, W. E. Balog, J. M. Rath, N. C. 1999. Sex differences
in the resistance of turkeys to Escherichia coli challenge after immunosuppression
with dexamethasone. Poultry Science. 1999. 78: 1, 38-44.
7. The UK Turkey & Geese Production Industry. 2007. http://www.defra.gov.uk/foodrin/poultry/pdfs/turkey-geese-report.pdf
Any questions regarding this information sheet please contact Gilly Prime
- Information and Research Officer gilly@vegsoc.org
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